Unit 3: Challenges to an Emerging Nation
First 13 States
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Presidents of the United States in this Unit |
Other Figures in this Unit |
Washington Takes Office |
The Cabinet |
The Whiskey Rebellion
Establishing the Court System |
The New Economy |
Hamilton's Plan
The Whiskey Rebellion
Hamilton's Financial Plan and
its connection to the Whiskey Rebellion |
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Challenges in the West
Problems with Europe - John Jay & Thomas Pinckney
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Washington's Farewell Address
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The First Political Parties
Federalists
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Democratic-Republicans
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States Admitted to the Union by the end of George Washington's Presidency |
The Election of 1796 |
John Adams as President
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The XYZ AffairIn 1778, France lent support to the Patriots after the Battle of Saratoga and helped win the American Revolution. Soon after our revolution, France had one of her own. The French expected some support from the U.S. since they had helped us. However, our new country was unable to return the favor during the French Revolution. This caused some tension. Matters
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were made worse when the Federalist Party gained control of the U.S. government. The Federalists were pro-British and anti-French. Federalist Alexander Hamilton sought to strengthen ties with Britain by sending John Jay to negotiate remaining problems between the two countries following the American Revolution, especially the issue of the British seizing American ships involved in trade with France. President Washington signed Jay’s Treaty in hopes of encouraging trade and goodwill with Britain. However, many Americans felt the U.S. had to give too much and gained too little. Jay’s Treaty was unpopular at home, but also unpopular with the French who viewed the U.S. as breaking an alliance with France. As a result, France began attacking U.S. ships involved in trade with Great Britain. This was an issue that was unresolved in Washington’s presidency and, thus, it was John Adams first foreign policy crisis. Adams sent John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and Charles Pinckney on a peace mission to France. French foreign minister Talleyrand refused to receive them officially. Instead, three men whose identities were concealed in official documents met the U.S. representatives. They were referred to simply as “X, Y, and Z”. The agents proposed that the Americans pay Talleyrand about $250,000, and then the French would discuss the matter. This perceived bribe enraged Americans. “Millions for defense; not one cent for tribute!” became a popular slogan in America. Americans were willing to spend any amount of money to defend our nation, but not one cent for bribes.
Subversion
The XYZ Affair made the American government sensitive to subversion. Subversion is activity designed to undermine or overthrow the government. In 1800, our country was young and vulnerable. There was a sense of heightened awareness of individuals, groups, or governments who might be trying to harm or take advantage of our infant country. There was a belief among some that we needed to protect our new government at all costs. The Federalist government under our second president, John Adams, passed The Alien and Sedition Acts to protect our government from potentially dangerous individuals and subversive activity.
Subversion
The XYZ Affair made the American government sensitive to subversion. Subversion is activity designed to undermine or overthrow the government. In 1800, our country was young and vulnerable. There was a sense of heightened awareness of individuals, groups, or governments who might be trying to harm or take advantage of our infant country. There was a belief among some that we needed to protect our new government at all costs. The Federalist government under our second president, John Adams, passed The Alien and Sedition Acts to protect our government from potentially dangerous individuals and subversive activity.
The Alien and Sedition ActIn 1789, the Federalists passed four laws designed to protect our government from subversive elements:
The Naturalization Act made it more difficult for foreigners to become U.S. citizens. This act increased the residency requirement for citizenship from 5 years to 14 years. |
The Alien Act and Alien Enemies Act gave the president power to imprison or deport aliens suspected of activities posing a threat to the national government.
Many felt these laws were not designed to protect the government, but designed to repress the Republican Party and keep the Federalist Party strong. Foreigners supported Republicans, so the Naturalization Act postponed voting privileges of foreigners from 5 years to 14 years. Many newspaper editors were Republican, so they were denied their First Amendment freedoms when they were detained or fined for criticizing Federalist policies.
- Sedition means to stir up rebellion against the government. The Sedition Act allowed for the punishment of those who criticized the government either verbally or in writing.
Many felt these laws were not designed to protect the government, but designed to repress the Republican Party and keep the Federalist Party strong. Foreigners supported Republicans, so the Naturalization Act postponed voting privileges of foreigners from 5 years to 14 years. Many newspaper editors were Republican, so they were denied their First Amendment freedoms when they were detained or fined for criticizing Federalist policies.
Sedition Act - Primary Source | |
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The Virginia and Kentucky ResolutionsThe Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions were proposals in Congress that would limit the power of the national government and increase the power of state governments. The Kentucky Resolution, written by Thomas Jefferson, stated that the national government had no right to exercise any powers not specifically given to it in the Constitution. Any power not listed was automatically a power of the states. The Virginia Resolution proposed that states should be able to nullify (cancel) federal laws they opposed. Neither of these resolutions passed in Congress. However, the idea of states’ rights is addressed for the first time. States’ rights is the power of states to limit the power of the federal government.
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The Election of 1800
The Judiciary Act of 1801Definition of 1801 Judiciary Act: Midnight Judges
Definition: The 1801 Judiciary Act (Midnight Judges Act) was "An Act to provide for the more convenient organization of the Courts of the United States". John Adams, leader of the Federalists, signed the act into law on February 13, 1801, less than 3 weeks before the end of his presidency and the start of the Jefferson presidency. Repeal of the 1801 Judiciary Act: Midnight Judges President Thomas Jefferson, leader of the Republicans (Anti-Federalists), later repealed the act on March 8, 1802 by the 1802 Judiciary Act. |
Marbury vs. MadisonMarbury v. Madison: The Background
The case of Marbury v. Madison is a landmark Supreme Court case. Marbury v. Madison is one of the most influential and groundbreaking legal proceeding in the history of the United States. The Marbury v. Madison case was the first of its kind. It dealt with administrative law, which is classified as the scope of law that involves any or all interactions with the Federal Government. The Marbury v. Madison case began with John Adams. The former president attempted to appoint William Marbury as a Justice of the Peace, but failed to complete the formal appointment before his presidency was terminated. As a member of the Federalist Party, John Adams attempted to appoint as many of his fellow Federalists to the cabinet of the President of the United States. |
The case of Marbury v. Madison deals with the process of appointing these high-ranking government officials. The appointment procedure for Justices of the Peace required completion within a President’s term. An official appointment had to be made while the President was active in his duties. William Marbury’s appointment was not completed in this timeframe. John Adams’s presidency ended before he could formally appoint Marbury.
Expecting to be permitted as a Justice of the Peace, Mr. Marbury assumed his role but was denied by the new president, Thomas Jefferson and his Secretary of State, James Madison. Jefferson and Madison rejected Marbury’s appointment by refusing to finalize the commission process.
Frustrated and upset that his appointment was suspended, William Marbury brought the case before the Supreme Court. The case of Marbury v. Madison was reviewed by Chief Justice John Marshall. After the trial Mr. Marshall said that Article III of the United States Constitution did not allow one branch of the Federal government to force action on the part of another branch. In Marbury v. Madison, John Marshall said that William Marbury was entitled to the position that was granted by John Adams, but the final decision ultimately belonged to the new President, Thomas Jefferson.
Expecting to be permitted as a Justice of the Peace, Mr. Marbury assumed his role but was denied by the new president, Thomas Jefferson and his Secretary of State, James Madison. Jefferson and Madison rejected Marbury’s appointment by refusing to finalize the commission process.
Frustrated and upset that his appointment was suspended, William Marbury brought the case before the Supreme Court. The case of Marbury v. Madison was reviewed by Chief Justice John Marshall. After the trial Mr. Marshall said that Article III of the United States Constitution did not allow one branch of the Federal government to force action on the part of another branch. In Marbury v. Madison, John Marshall said that William Marbury was entitled to the position that was granted by John Adams, but the final decision ultimately belonged to the new President, Thomas Jefferson.
The Louisiana Purchase
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Lewis and Clark's Expedition |
Hamilton/Burr Duel |
Tecumseh
Tecumseh: A Brave and Heroic Leader
Tecumseh was a highly respected Shawnee war chief. He [like many other native chiefs] attempted to form an alliance of Indian tribes so that they would pose as more of a threat to settlers. Tecumseh was an ally of the British and the Canadians during the war of 1812. He was a very important person in history, as he helped to shape our country into what it is today. His perseverance, bravery, and dedication to his tribe shows why he was such an influential leader in history.
Early Life
Tecumseh's early life was full of very hard challenges that the world still faces today, including poverty, war,and inequality. He was a very grateful child and was raised to become a warrior. He was an intelligent young boy with great problem-solving skills and a vision of peace.
Tecumseh was born in the year 1768 near the Ohio River Basin. His name is thought to mean shooting star- a title of bravery and success. His father, Pukeshinwau, was the chief of the Shawnee tribe. Other first-nations tribes viewed the Shawnee people as strong and warlike.
During Tecumseh's first few years, the Shawnee tribe was at peace. Tecumseh was an energetic young boy who was full of imagination. He had numerous friends in the village to play hunting games and war with. For a little while, the Shawnee were safe. But, as Tecumseh grew older, the tribe began to encounter issues including poverty, starvation, and war.
Tecumseh's later years of his childhood were not as content. His tribe was always in danger, due to the new settlers arriving on their land. The Shawnee tribe was constantly moving and trying to stay safe. Adults from the village were forced to fight invading armies that were a threat to their lifestyle. Everyone in the village lost family members and friends to the war. Tecumseh was only six years old when the Chief (his father) was killed in battle at point pleasant. The war was tearing the village apart, piece by piece. The Shawnee tribe was now living in poverty; they had been savaged by war. There were many people from the tribe that were dead or severely injured from battle. The Shawnee tribe was weakening in strength, and in numbers.
Tecumseh's childhood was quite depressing. His village was surrounded by bloodshed and war. He grew up with the thought that white men were ruthless and uncaring, because that's how they had acted towards his people. Later on in life, he would be proved wrong by Sir Issac Brock- a trustworthy military general- but before this, he hated the white men and vowed not to trust them.
Adult Life
As Tecumseh grew older, he became stronger as a person and gained knowledge. He decided to become a warrior and fight for his tribe, like many men (including his father) had done before him. Tecumseh dreamt that soon, his tribe would live without the fear of being killed. Soon, his tribe would live in peace.
Unfortunately, arguments began to rise between the natives and the settlers. Conflicts began to rise between the people, and soon, there was war. The settlers wanted the native's land to themselves, and they were willing to make sacrifices in order to get it. The Americans were dominating. The Shawnee tribe was weak from battle. Unless they wanted to lose their home, Tecumseh knew that he would need to do something about the settlers.
Tecumseh believed that the Indian tribes needed to unite and fight against the white men. He contacted other tribes and tried to convince them to form a confederacy. If they worked together, he thought that they could rebel against the settlers and keep their homes.
Soon, Tecumseh became a highly respected leader of the Shawnee tribe. People admired him for protesting and standing up to the Americans. He had proved that he had all the requirements of a chief: combat skills, bravery, perseverance, and a dream.
Consolidation of Indian Tribes
Most of Tecumseh's life was spent trying to unite the native tribes. He believed that if he did this, the natives would have a chance at settling the conflict between the Americans.
Over the course of a year, Tecumseh was able to establish a bond between the native tribes. He built a centre of government/political power in Tippecanoe where the tribes could discuss news and warn each other about wars. Tippecanoe doubled as a training centre for warriors in the tribes. It was a very important place for the natives because it was where they could gather to make strategies and keep their tribes safe.
Settlers who lived on the land became concerned about the power and attention Tecumseh had gained from this project. Now that the natives had begun working together, they were stronger, and this scared the Americans. The settlers did not feel safe anymore, so they contacted the U.S. government and asked them to deal with the issue.
Seeing so many Indians working together worried the governor of the Indian territory, so he sent an army of men forward. The soldiers swept through Tippecanoe, destroying the buildings and killing innocent people. The Americans felt threatened, and this is how they had dealt with it.
Tecumseh had not been present when the Americans had attacked. Before he had left, he had told his brother not to fight. But, his brother ignored him and lead the natives into battle any ways. By the time the fight was over, there were many people dead on both sides. The Americans were victorious, and they had weakened the confederation of Indians. This was called The Battle of Tippecanoe- a battle most native families would remember for decades.
After this battle, Tecumseh fled the area and didn't return for three months. When he returned, he found the town destroyed. He gave up on his hope of joining forces with the American settlers and living in peace. Now, Tecumseh felt that there could be no trust with the white men, as they were dishonest and only cared about land. Tecumseh and the Shawnee tribe were weak and alone; torn apart by war. He needed to save his people and give them the one thing they wanted- peace.
War of 1812
The war of 1812 was a very important part of history. If it had not happened, Canada would not be what it is today.
Following the destruction of Tippecanoe, Tecumseh and the other Shawnee warriors allied with the British. They hoped that doing so would help them gain back the land they had lost. Hundreds of Native men fought in the war alongside the British. Some were given guns, and others used traditional native weapons (bow and arrows, spears, etc.).
On June 18th, 1812, Tecumseh lead approximately two-thousand warriors into battle. He was the first native to serve at the rank of General in the British army. His support for Major-General Sir Isaac Brock was vital in the success of the war. He and his men fought a long, hard battle. Many natives and soldiers died in the war.
The outcome of the war resolved countless issues between the British and the Americans, but it involved no boundary changes (one of the reasons the war had started was because the Americans felt like the British were preventing them from expanding to the west). The natives had been a tremendous help to the British, but were never rewarded with their land.
Without Tecumseh and his men, the British would have lost. Tecumseh was very brave to fight in the war. He sacrificed his vision of peace to help Sir Isaac Brock defeat the Americans, but was given nothing in return. Tecumseh was a very important figure in the war of 1812, as he led many soldiers into battle, putting himself in great danger to help his people.
Battle of the Thames
A few months after The War of 1812, another war occurred. The British agreed to support the natives, but they retreated during battle and left the natives to fight on their own. Tecumseh didn't feel that the British were much help, so he decided to fight the Americans without them.
The Shawnee tribe was outnumbered, and weak. They had lost many men in the previous war, and the Americans were defeating them. They did not have enough support. The men were growing tired, but they still pushed through the battle, giving their best and defending their people.
Tecumseh fought hard as well, but it wasn't enough. On October fifth, 1813, Tecumseh died in battle at Chatham, Ontario. His death ended the dream of a unified Native nation, and a treaty of peace between the natives and the settlers. After his death, the Native resistance quickly fell apart. Without his leadership, the Shawnee people were not as strong. Without Tecumseh, they were never the same.
Tecumseh was a highly respected Shawnee war chief. He [like many other native chiefs] attempted to form an alliance of Indian tribes so that they would pose as more of a threat to settlers. Tecumseh was an ally of the British and the Canadians during the war of 1812. He was a very important person in history, as he helped to shape our country into what it is today. His perseverance, bravery, and dedication to his tribe shows why he was such an influential leader in history.
Early Life
Tecumseh's early life was full of very hard challenges that the world still faces today, including poverty, war,and inequality. He was a very grateful child and was raised to become a warrior. He was an intelligent young boy with great problem-solving skills and a vision of peace.
Tecumseh was born in the year 1768 near the Ohio River Basin. His name is thought to mean shooting star- a title of bravery and success. His father, Pukeshinwau, was the chief of the Shawnee tribe. Other first-nations tribes viewed the Shawnee people as strong and warlike.
During Tecumseh's first few years, the Shawnee tribe was at peace. Tecumseh was an energetic young boy who was full of imagination. He had numerous friends in the village to play hunting games and war with. For a little while, the Shawnee were safe. But, as Tecumseh grew older, the tribe began to encounter issues including poverty, starvation, and war.
Tecumseh's later years of his childhood were not as content. His tribe was always in danger, due to the new settlers arriving on their land. The Shawnee tribe was constantly moving and trying to stay safe. Adults from the village were forced to fight invading armies that were a threat to their lifestyle. Everyone in the village lost family members and friends to the war. Tecumseh was only six years old when the Chief (his father) was killed in battle at point pleasant. The war was tearing the village apart, piece by piece. The Shawnee tribe was now living in poverty; they had been savaged by war. There were many people from the tribe that were dead or severely injured from battle. The Shawnee tribe was weakening in strength, and in numbers.
Tecumseh's childhood was quite depressing. His village was surrounded by bloodshed and war. He grew up with the thought that white men were ruthless and uncaring, because that's how they had acted towards his people. Later on in life, he would be proved wrong by Sir Issac Brock- a trustworthy military general- but before this, he hated the white men and vowed not to trust them.
Adult Life
As Tecumseh grew older, he became stronger as a person and gained knowledge. He decided to become a warrior and fight for his tribe, like many men (including his father) had done before him. Tecumseh dreamt that soon, his tribe would live without the fear of being killed. Soon, his tribe would live in peace.
Unfortunately, arguments began to rise between the natives and the settlers. Conflicts began to rise between the people, and soon, there was war. The settlers wanted the native's land to themselves, and they were willing to make sacrifices in order to get it. The Americans were dominating. The Shawnee tribe was weak from battle. Unless they wanted to lose their home, Tecumseh knew that he would need to do something about the settlers.
Tecumseh believed that the Indian tribes needed to unite and fight against the white men. He contacted other tribes and tried to convince them to form a confederacy. If they worked together, he thought that they could rebel against the settlers and keep their homes.
Soon, Tecumseh became a highly respected leader of the Shawnee tribe. People admired him for protesting and standing up to the Americans. He had proved that he had all the requirements of a chief: combat skills, bravery, perseverance, and a dream.
Consolidation of Indian Tribes
Most of Tecumseh's life was spent trying to unite the native tribes. He believed that if he did this, the natives would have a chance at settling the conflict between the Americans.
Over the course of a year, Tecumseh was able to establish a bond between the native tribes. He built a centre of government/political power in Tippecanoe where the tribes could discuss news and warn each other about wars. Tippecanoe doubled as a training centre for warriors in the tribes. It was a very important place for the natives because it was where they could gather to make strategies and keep their tribes safe.
Settlers who lived on the land became concerned about the power and attention Tecumseh had gained from this project. Now that the natives had begun working together, they were stronger, and this scared the Americans. The settlers did not feel safe anymore, so they contacted the U.S. government and asked them to deal with the issue.
Seeing so many Indians working together worried the governor of the Indian territory, so he sent an army of men forward. The soldiers swept through Tippecanoe, destroying the buildings and killing innocent people. The Americans felt threatened, and this is how they had dealt with it.
Tecumseh had not been present when the Americans had attacked. Before he had left, he had told his brother not to fight. But, his brother ignored him and lead the natives into battle any ways. By the time the fight was over, there were many people dead on both sides. The Americans were victorious, and they had weakened the confederation of Indians. This was called The Battle of Tippecanoe- a battle most native families would remember for decades.
After this battle, Tecumseh fled the area and didn't return for three months. When he returned, he found the town destroyed. He gave up on his hope of joining forces with the American settlers and living in peace. Now, Tecumseh felt that there could be no trust with the white men, as they were dishonest and only cared about land. Tecumseh and the Shawnee tribe were weak and alone; torn apart by war. He needed to save his people and give them the one thing they wanted- peace.
War of 1812
The war of 1812 was a very important part of history. If it had not happened, Canada would not be what it is today.
Following the destruction of Tippecanoe, Tecumseh and the other Shawnee warriors allied with the British. They hoped that doing so would help them gain back the land they had lost. Hundreds of Native men fought in the war alongside the British. Some were given guns, and others used traditional native weapons (bow and arrows, spears, etc.).
On June 18th, 1812, Tecumseh lead approximately two-thousand warriors into battle. He was the first native to serve at the rank of General in the British army. His support for Major-General Sir Isaac Brock was vital in the success of the war. He and his men fought a long, hard battle. Many natives and soldiers died in the war.
The outcome of the war resolved countless issues between the British and the Americans, but it involved no boundary changes (one of the reasons the war had started was because the Americans felt like the British were preventing them from expanding to the west). The natives had been a tremendous help to the British, but were never rewarded with their land.
Without Tecumseh and his men, the British would have lost. Tecumseh was very brave to fight in the war. He sacrificed his vision of peace to help Sir Isaac Brock defeat the Americans, but was given nothing in return. Tecumseh was a very important figure in the war of 1812, as he led many soldiers into battle, putting himself in great danger to help his people.
Battle of the Thames
A few months after The War of 1812, another war occurred. The British agreed to support the natives, but they retreated during battle and left the natives to fight on their own. Tecumseh didn't feel that the British were much help, so he decided to fight the Americans without them.
The Shawnee tribe was outnumbered, and weak. They had lost many men in the previous war, and the Americans were defeating them. They did not have enough support. The men were growing tired, but they still pushed through the battle, giving their best and defending their people.
Tecumseh fought hard as well, but it wasn't enough. On October fifth, 1813, Tecumseh died in battle at Chatham, Ontario. His death ended the dream of a unified Native nation, and a treaty of peace between the natives and the settlers. After his death, the Native resistance quickly fell apart. Without his leadership, the Shawnee people were not as strong. Without Tecumseh, they were never the same.
States Admitted to the Union during James Madison's Presidency |
The Election of 1812 |
The War of 1812
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Causes of the War
France and Britain, Europe's two most powerful nations, had battles almost constantly since 1793, and their warfare directly affected American trade. American presidents from Washington to Madison tried to keep the United States neutral during these conflicts, but both France and Britain deliberately ignored the rights of neutral countries. |
For the Americans, the greatest annoyance was Britain's practice of impressments, or the capture of American sailors for service in the British navy. The British government claimed that it only detained subjects of the Crown who sailed under the American flag to escape wartime service in their own navy. In fact, the British seized not only their own deserters, but also frightened a significant number of United States citizens-estimates suggest 6000 or more.
The War Begins Britain did not really want a war with the United States because it was already involved in another war with France. To try to avoid war, the British announced that they would no longer interfere with American shipping. But the slow mails of the day prevented this news from reaching the United States until weeks after June 18th, when Congress approved Madison’s request for a declaration of war. The War of 1812 had two main phases. From 1812 to 1814, Britain concentrated on its war against France. It devoted little energy to the conflict in North America, although it did send ships to blockade the American coast. The second phase of the war began after the British defeated France in April 1814. With their European war nearly at an end, the British could turn their complete attention to the United States. The United States military was weak when the war was declared. Democratic-Republicans had reduced the size of the armed forces. When the war began, the Navy had only about 16 ships. The army had fewer than 7,000 men. These men were poorly trained and equipped, and were often led by inexperienced officers. |
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The First Phase of the War
In spite of its small size, the United States Navy rose to the challenge. Its warships were the fastest afloat. American naval officers had gained valuable experience fighting pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Early in the war, before the British blockaded the coast, ships such as the Constitution and the United States won stirring victories. These victories on the high seas boosted American confidence.
The Second Phase of the War
After defeating Napoleon in April 1814, Britain turned its full attention to the United States. British forces focused their attack on Washington D.C. and burned the Capitol building and the president’s mansion in August. The British then attacked Fort McHenry at Baltimore. The commander of Fort McHenry had earlier requested a flag “so large that the British will have no difficulty in seeing it.” Detained on a British ship, a Washington lawyer named Francis Scott Key watched the all-night battle. At dawn, Key discovered that the flag was still flying. He expressed his pride in what became the U.S. national anthem. Meanwhile, in the south, the British moved against the strategic port of New Orleans. In December 1814, dozens of ships carrying 7,500 British troops approached Louisiana. To fight them, the Americans patched together an army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
The British attacked Jackson’s forces on January 8, 1815. Protected by earthworks, American riflemen mowed down the advancing redcoats. It was a great victory for Jackson. American casualties totaled 71, compared to Britain’s 2,000. Though the Battle of New Orleans made Jackson a hero, it was unnecessary. Slow mails from Europe had delayed news of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. It had been signed two weeks earlier, on December 24, 1814.
The Legacy of the War
The treaty showed that the war had no clear winner. No territory changed hands, and trade disputes were left unresolved. Still, the war had important consequences. First, the heroic exploits of men such as Andrew Jackson and Oliver Perry increased American patriotism. Second, the war broke the strength of Native Americans, who had sided with the British. Finally, when war interrupted trade, the Americans were forced to make many of the goods they had previously imported. This encouraged the growth of U.S. manufactures. The United States had also proved that it could defend itself against the mightiest military power of the era. For perhaps the first time, Americans believed that the young nation would survive and prosper.
Another legacy of the war was Francis Scott Key’s “The Star Spangled Banner.” Key wrote this poem while imprisoned in Baltimore on a British ship. It late became our national anthem.
In spite of its small size, the United States Navy rose to the challenge. Its warships were the fastest afloat. American naval officers had gained valuable experience fighting pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Early in the war, before the British blockaded the coast, ships such as the Constitution and the United States won stirring victories. These victories on the high seas boosted American confidence.
The Second Phase of the War
After defeating Napoleon in April 1814, Britain turned its full attention to the United States. British forces focused their attack on Washington D.C. and burned the Capitol building and the president’s mansion in August. The British then attacked Fort McHenry at Baltimore. The commander of Fort McHenry had earlier requested a flag “so large that the British will have no difficulty in seeing it.” Detained on a British ship, a Washington lawyer named Francis Scott Key watched the all-night battle. At dawn, Key discovered that the flag was still flying. He expressed his pride in what became the U.S. national anthem. Meanwhile, in the south, the British moved against the strategic port of New Orleans. In December 1814, dozens of ships carrying 7,500 British troops approached Louisiana. To fight them, the Americans patched together an army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
The British attacked Jackson’s forces on January 8, 1815. Protected by earthworks, American riflemen mowed down the advancing redcoats. It was a great victory for Jackson. American casualties totaled 71, compared to Britain’s 2,000. Though the Battle of New Orleans made Jackson a hero, it was unnecessary. Slow mails from Europe had delayed news of the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. It had been signed two weeks earlier, on December 24, 1814.
The Legacy of the War
The treaty showed that the war had no clear winner. No territory changed hands, and trade disputes were left unresolved. Still, the war had important consequences. First, the heroic exploits of men such as Andrew Jackson and Oliver Perry increased American patriotism. Second, the war broke the strength of Native Americans, who had sided with the British. Finally, when war interrupted trade, the Americans were forced to make many of the goods they had previously imported. This encouraged the growth of U.S. manufactures. The United States had also proved that it could defend itself against the mightiest military power of the era. For perhaps the first time, Americans believed that the young nation would survive and prosper.
Another legacy of the war was Francis Scott Key’s “The Star Spangled Banner.” Key wrote this poem while imprisoned in Baltimore on a British ship. It late became our national anthem.